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. Notion of Opposition. Oppositions in Morphology
The most general meanings rendered by language and expressed
by systemic correlations of word-forms are interpreted in linguistics
as categorial grammatical meanings. The forms rendering these meanings are identified within definite paradigmatic series.
The grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized
grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a
categorial function constitutes a paradigm. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by grammat5 - 3548
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Ɉɬɪɟɞɚɤɬɢɪɨɜɚɥɢɨɩɭɛɥɢɤɨɜɚɥɧɚɫɚɣɬɟ : PRESSI ( HERSON )
66 Seminars on Theoretical English
Grammar
• Seminar 3. Categorial Structure of the Word 67
ical oppositions which are generalized correlations of lingual forms
by means of which certain functions are expressed.
There exist three main types of qualitatively different oppositions:
“privative”, “gradual”, “equipollent”. By the number of members
contrasted, oppositions are divided into binary and more than binary. The privative binary opposition is formed by a contrastive pair of
members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a
certain feature called the “mark”, while the other member is characterized by the absence of this differential feature. The gradual opposition is formed by the degree of the presentation of one and the same
feature of the opposition members. The equipollent opposition is
formed by a contrastive group of members which are distinguished
not by the presence or absence of a certain feature, but by a contrastive pair or group in which the members are distinguished by different positive (differential) features.
The most important type of opposition in morphology is the binary privative opposition. The privative morphological opposition is based
on a morphological differential feature which is present in its strong
(marked) member and is absent in its weak (unmarked) member. This
featuring serves as the immediate means of expressing a grammatical
meaning, e.g. we distinguish the verbal present and past tenses with the
help of the privative opposition whose differential feature is the dental
suffix “-(e)d”: “work II worked”: “non-past (-) // past (+)”.
Gradual oppositions in morphology are not generally recognized;
they can be identified as a minor type at the semantic level only, e.g.
the category of comparison is expressed through the gradual morphological opposition: “clean//cleaner//cleanest”.
Equipollent oppositions in English morphology constitute a minor type and are mostly confined to formal relations. In context of a
broader morphological interpretation one can say that the basis of
morphological equipollent oppositions is suppletivity, i.e. the expression of the grammatical meaning by means of different roots united
in one and the same paradigm, e.g. the correlation of the case forms
of personal pronouns (she // her, he // him), the tense forms of the
irregular verbs (go //went), etc.
As morphological gradual and equipollent oppositions can be
reduced to privative oppositions, a word-form can be characterized
by a bundle of differential features (strong features) exposing its categorial properties.
2. Oppositional Reduction
Oppositional reduction, or oppositional substitution, is the usage of one member of an opposition in the position of the countermember. From the functional point of view there exist two types of
Oppositional reduction: neutralization of the categorial opposition
{fed its transposition.
’ In case of neutralization one member of the opposition becomes
fully identified with its counterpart. As the position of neutralization is
usually filled in by the weak member of the opposition due to its more
general semantics, this kind of oppositional reduction is stylistically
colourless, e.g.: “Man is sinful.” It is an example of neutralization of
the opposition in the category of number because in the sentence the
fioun “man” used in the singular (the weak member of the opposition)
fulfils the function of the plural counterpart (the strong member of the
Imposition), for it denotes the class of referents as a whole.
Transposition takes place when one member of the opposition
placed in the contextual conditions uncommon for it begins to simultaneously fulfil two functions - its own and the function of its counterpart. As a result, transposition is always accompanied by different stylistic effects, e.g.: “Jake had that same desperate look his father had,
and he was always getting sore at himself and wanting other people to
be happy. Jake was always asking him to smile” (W. Saroyan).
In the cited example the transponized character of the continuous form of the verb is revealed in its fulfilling two functions - one of
them is primary, the other is secondary; the primary function of the
Said verb form is to denote a habitual action, while its secondary
function consists in denoting an action presented in the process of
development. Due to the transpositional use of the aspect verbal form,
the analyzed context becomes stylistically marked. 1
The study of
the oppositional reduction has shown that it is effected by means of a
very complex and subtle lingual mechanism which involves the
inherent properties of lexemes, lexical and grammatical distribution
of the replaced word-form and numerous situational factors, such as
the aim of communication, the speaker’s wish either to
68 Seminars on Theoretical English Grammar Seminar 3. Categorial Structure of the Word 69
identify or to characterize the denoted object, to reveal some facts or
to conceal them, to sound either flat or expressive, the speaker’s intention to evaluate the discussed objects, the interlocutors’ sharing or nonsharing of the needed information, etc. All these factors turn oppositional reduction into a very powerful means of text stylization.
Read the text, and based on it, do the tasks: I. Define the types of the oppositions and interpret the categorial properties of their members in privative terms.
MODEL: play -played
The words “play - played” make up a binary privative opposition.
The strong member is “played”; its differential feature is the denotation of a past action. The marker of this categorial meaning is the grammatical suffix “-ed”.
a. k- Q , m - w, s-n, ɚ :- ɷ -i:
b. he - she, he - they, he - it, we - they;
c. intelligent - more intelligent - the most intelligent;
d. I understand -I am understood;
e. tooth - teeth, pincers - a pair of pincers;
f. am - is;
g. he listens - he is listening;
h. mother - room.
II. Build up the oppositions of the categorial forms and define the types of
the oppositions:
efficient, have defined, they, information, he, more efficient, vessel, we,
define, the most efficient, are defined, I, vessels, will define, bits of information, defined, less efficient, a most efficient.
III. Analyze the morphemic composition of the following words:
a) embodiment, conceive, multifarious;
b) impassable, marksmanship, genii;
c) unconsciously, strawberry, indistinguishable;
d) insubordination, impracticable, media.
IV. Define the type of the morphemic distribution according to which the following words are grouped:
a) lice - houses;
b) ineffable - immortal;
c) transfusible - transfusable;
d) non-flammable - inflammable.ASSISTANT
I. a. Privative binary opposition: k, m (differential feature: presence/absence of the sound "w") b. Privative binary opposition: he, she (differential feature: gender) c. Gradual opposition: intelligent, more intelligent, the most intelligent (differential feature: degree of intelligence) d. Privative binary opposition: understand, am understood (differential feature: active/passive voice) e. Privative binary opposition: tooth, teeth (differential feature: singular/plural) f. Privative binary opposition: am, is (differential feature: present tense) g. Gradual opposition: listens, is listening (differential feature: duration of action) h. Equipollent opposition: mother, room (differential features: relationship, function within a sentence) II. 1. Efficient - less efficient 2. Have defined - are defined 3. They - he 4. Information - bits of information 5. More efficient - most efficient 6. Vessel - vessels 7. We - I 8. Define - will define 9. A most efficient - less efficient III. a) Embodiment - -ment, con-ceive, multi-farious b) Impassable - -able, marksmanship, Genii c) Unconsciously - un-, straw-bery, in-distinguish-able d) Insubordination - in-, im-, -able, media IV. a) Morphemic distribution: plural nouns - singular nouns (-s) b) Morphemic distribution: negative prefix "in-" - adjective suffix "-able" c) Morphemic distribution: trans- + -fusible/-fusable d) Morphemic distribution: negative prefix "non-" - adjective suffix "-flam(m)-able"