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Summarize psychology in 30 specialized sentences
Hall's approach to theorizing:
-Review of the research done
Summarizing research findings
- Attempting to obtain testability results from those abstract principles
*Hall's approach: hypothetical-deductive or logical-deductive
Rashut and Amsel have explained this approach as follows:
The behavioral scientist compiles a set of principles and using logic
Precisely, he uses them as theorems about phenomena. This is the principle of subjects
They include the essences that are invented by the theorist rather than his thinking
Organize about the dependent and independent variables related to the desired behavioral phenomena. Then
It evaluates the theory with experimental operations to see how it works in the laboratory
come
Hall himself said about this:
Empirical observation combined with intelligent speculation are the main source of the basic principles of science. These formulas
Show the inferences to the scientist when they are considered in different combinations and appropriate conditions
Some of these findings may be related to the experimental results of the desired conditions
have an agreement and some others do not.
Initial propositions that generate logical analogies, and frequently with returns
Empirically observed agree only to be otherwise either rejected or the case
are subject to appeal.
This refinement, which continues through a process of trial and error, creates a series of principles
These principles become very reliable over time.
Major theoretical concepts:
Hall's theory has a logical structure of the principle of the subject, the principle of the subject, general statements
are about behavior that cannot be checked directly, but cases that
Logically derived from the principle of the subjects can be tested.
*Hall's 1934 presentation of the sixteen major theme principles
The principle of subject one: sensing the external environment and rejecting the stimulus
An external stimulation causes a sensory impulse that lasts for a few moments after the cessation of environmental stimulation
Hall postulates a stimulus trace that lasts for a few seconds after the event has stopped
The stimulus continues.
A nerve impulse is associated with a response, for Hall this association between a stimulus and a response
It becomes obvious.
- Converting the traditional S-R formula to S-s-r-R
S: external stimulus
s: stimulus trace
r: Firing of motor neurons
R: The obvious answer
The principle of the topic: 2 interaction of sensory impulses
Behavior is rarely the result of only one stimulus, but is a function of many stimuli in each
They affect the organism at a given moment.
S1 —> s1
S2 —> s2
S3 —> s3
S4 —> s4
š —-> r —-> R
The main topic: 3 unlearned behavior
The organism is born with a hierarchy of responses that are activated when a need arises
For example, if a foreign object enters the eye, the eyelids close together quickly
they eat
If the innate response pattern cannot meet the need, another response will be given, and so on.
If none of the innate responses can reduce the need, the organism is forced to
Learn a new response pattern.
According to Hall, learning occurs only when innate mechanisms and dependent responses are not needed
Reduce the organismAs long as the inherent mechanisms are effective in satisfying the needs, there is a reason
There are no new answers to learn.
The principle of the subject: 4 proximity and reduction of the driver as necessary conditions for learning
If a stimulus leads to a response and the response satisfies a biological need, then
The association between stimulus and response becomes stronger. As a result, the relationship between stimulus and response becomes stronger
According to this definition, Hall presented the term of habit strength. Hall with the law of effect
Revised Tharandic agrees: If the answer is followed by a pleasing posture, it is strong
This bond increases and if it is followed by an annoying situation, the strength of the bond decreases.
Although Hall, like Thorndike and Skinner, was a theorist of reinforcement, he was more precise than them
Kurd. Skinner simply said that a reinforcer is something that increases a response and
Thorndike spoke of the vague term pleasurable or aversive, but Hall said reinforcers
There are stimuli that can reduce the driver. Hall also said more initial reinforcements
Further reinforcements affect learning.
The principle of the topic: 5 generalization of the stimulus
The ability of a stimulus to elicit a conditioned response by virtue of its similarity to the task stimulus
It is determined in the course of conditioning. Therefore, the strength of the habit from one stimulus to another
The other stimulus is generalized and the extent of this generalization depends on the similarity between the two stimuli.
This principle also suggests that previous experience influences current learning
That is, the learning done in similar situations is generalized to the new learning situation.
The principle of the subject: 6 driver-related stimuli
Biological deficiencies in the organism produce driving conditions. For example, dry mouth and lips
Throat that is accompanied by thirst. The presence of special stimulants makes this possible
To teach the organism to behave in a special way under any driver.
For example, an animal can be taught to turn right in a T-shaped maze when it is hungry
Turn and turn left when thirsty.
The concept of driving stimuli: the basic concept in Hall's revised theory in 1952
The principle of the topic: 7. The ability to react as a function of the driver and the strength of the habit
The probability of performing a learned response at any given time is called response power. Because
For a learned response to appear, the strength of the habit must be activated by the driver
It does not direct the behavior, but simply motivates the behavior and gives it intensity
The driver, the animal does not show the learned behavior. For example, the animal only takes the food lever
He insists that he is hungry.
Hall showed this principle with this formula:
sER = sHR × D
= sER power of reaction
= sHR habit strength
= D strength of the driver
The principle of the topic: 8. Answering leads to fatigue, which works against conditioned response
slow down
Responsiveness>—Work>—Fatigue>—Responsive Inhibition (Reactive Inhibition)
Reactive inhibition occurs as a result of fatigue resulting from muscle activity and in the amount
The work required to complete the task is dependent.
That is, the organism may stop responding due to increased reactive inhibition
But after rest, the reactive inhibition disappears and the organism starts to respond again
gives
inhibitionA reaction has been used to explain the effect of incremental learning.
The effect of incremental learning means improving performance after stopping training. For example, if subjects are taught
let them follow a rotating circle using a rod, their performance gradually
will increase until it reaches an asymptotic level (maximum). If after reaching this
On the surface of the surface, the subjects should be given a few minutes to rest and then they will be asked
If they follow the circle again, their performance will exceed this level
Augmentative learning is said to be caused by removing reactive inhibition during training
is
More evidence in this field: continuous practice and spaced practice. When learning exercises
If they are spaced apart, they will perform better than when the exercises are continuous
to be
Topic: 9 learned answers not to answer
Fatigue becomes a negative driver and makes non-response a reinforcement.
Not responding causes the loss of reactive inhibition, resulting in the negative driver of fatigue.
is reduced
Conditioned inhibition = learned response of not responding. When reactive inhibition and inhibition
If they are subtracted from each other, the effective reaction power remains.
effective reaction power) = sER = sHR × D- (IR + sIR
= sHR habit strength
= D driver
= IR reactive inhibition
= sIR conditioned inhibition
Topic: 10 factors that prevent the learned answer from moment to moment
They change the next moment
Oscillation effect: an inhibitory force that changes from moment to moment and vice versa
Recalling a learned response works.
The oscillation effect explains why a learned response occurs at the same time and at
A time no longer occurs. Predictions of behavior based on effective reaction power are always affected
It is a fluctuating effect and therefore always has a probabilistic nature.
Hall subtracted the oscillation effect from the effective reaction power and the result was called the instantaneous effective reaction power.
Principle of the subject: 11. The instantaneous effective reaction power must exceed a certain value to one
A learned response can appear
Response Threshold: The value that the effective response power must exceed for a conditioned response
can appear. Therefore, a learned response will only occur when the
The effective instantaneous reaction is greater than the reaction threshold.
The principle of the subject: 12. The probability of performing a learned response is a function of the combination of reaction power
Effective is the effect of fluctuation and reaction threshold
In the early stages of training, the effective reaction power is very close to the reaction threshold; Therefore
As a result of the effects of the fluctuation effect, a conditional response is given in some attempts and in others
It is no longer given.
Reason: In some efforts, the value of the effect of oscillation is so large that the value of the effective reaction power
reduces to less than the reaction threshold.
As the training progresses, subtracting the effect of oscillation from the effective reaction power gradually becomes less effective
because the value of the effective reaction power becomes much larger than the value of the reaction threshold.
However, even after a lot of training, it is possible that the amount of fluctuation effect is very large and in
The result prevents the conditioned response from occurring.
The main topic: 13 eachThe larger the effective reaction power, the longer the latency between
The stimulus and response are shorter
Latent refers to the time interval between the presentation of the stimulus to the organism and the time of the learned response
The reaction time between the beginning of a stimulus and the appearance of a learned response is called the organism side
It decreases with the increase of the instantaneous effective reaction power.
The principle of the subject: 14, the value of sER determines the resistance against blackout
The value of the instantaneous effective reaction power at the end of the training period determines how many responses no
Reinforcement is required for extinction to occur. How many sER Û the number of unreinforced responses required
be given before shutdown
Principle: 15. The amplitude or value of a conditioned response varies directly with sER
This principle is related to situations where the answer is given to different values
It works when the conditional answer is the type of answers that are given to different values
The value of the conditional response is directly related to the effective power of the instantaneous response.
The principle of the issue: 16, when there is a possibility of two or more incompatible responses in a situation
has, the response that has the highest sER will take place.
Major differences between the 1943 and 1952 theories
Incentive motivation
In his 1943 theory, Hall said that the greater the amount of reinforcement, the stronger the habit
It is more. The studies showed that this idea is not satisfactory. That is, when the amount of reinforcement
After learning to change is complete, performance changes dramatically.
Crespi and Ziman were among the first experimenters who found that performance by changing the amount of reinforcement to
The results of Crespi and Zeeman led Hall to the conclusion that organisms
For high and low values of incentives, they learn the same, but by changing the amount of incentives, performance
They change.
Crespi effect: rapid change in performance following a change in the amount of reinforcement.
Stimulus intensity dynamics
It is an interface variable that changes when the intensity of the external stimulus changes. The dynamics of the intensity
Stimulus indicates that the greater the intensity of a stimulus, the more likely a response
It is more learned to do. The formula provided by Hall is as follows:
sḖR=[sHR×D×V×K-(IR+sIR)]-sOR
=sḖR momentary effective reaction power
=sHR habit strength
=D driver
=V driving force
=K incentive motivation
IR = reactive inhibition
=sIR conditional inhibition
=sOR Oscillation effect
Change from driver reduction to driver stimulus reduction
At first, Hall's theory was a reduction theory of learning, but later it was a reduction theory
He called the drive driver.
The first reason: if a thirsty animal is given water as a reinforcer to perform an action,
A significant amount of time is required to quench the thirst with water, because water must be
It passes through the mouth, throat, and stomach until it finally enters the blood and finally reaches the brain
Hall concluded that the interval between the time of presentation of the reinforcer and the decrease
The driver is too much to justify how learning happened. What
Learning is necessary to explain what happens immediately after the presentation of the reinforcer
Give, that thing is reducing the driver's stimulus.
The second reason: the studies of Sheffield and Ruby>- Hungry rats are reinforced with saccharin. Comment
Hall about thisResearches: Absorption of water sweetened with saccharin reduces hunger stress
For a short period of time, it reduces, which is a mild reinforcement and reduces the driver's stimulus
be made
Target Expected Sub-Response
When a neutral stimulus is paired with a primary reinforcer, that stimulus has reinforcing properties
It means it becomes a secondary amplifier.
Suppose we want to train a mouse to find its way in a multi-part maze.
We place the animal in the starting box and he finally reaches the target box and there with
Food (primary reinforcer) is reinforced, so are all stimuli in the target box
which are experienced by the animal just before receiving food as reinforcers
They become secondary. Here, the unconditioned response is salivation, chewing or licking
Food craving, which is caused by providing food to the animal. Also, a series of conditioned responses
It is also created like the secretion of saliva and chewing food by various stimuli of the box
The target will be created in the mouse when he approaches the food. Conditional response given
to the stimuli that are experienced before swallowing the food is the same as the sub-response
The target expectation is called rG.
The target's expected sub-response is always a part of the target's response.
For example, if the answer is the goal of eating, the small movements of chewing and the secretion of saliva as a result
Muscular activities are created, the micro-organism response is the goal. The most important aspect of the micro-organism
The expected response of the target is the production of SG muscle stimulus.
When we put an animal in the box, the stimuli inside the box, a sign for
They leave the box because they bring the animal closer to the secondary reinforcers. When
The next secondary reinforcer experienced elicits the next overt response and the subresponse
It is produced. The production of the expected sub-response of the target causes the creation of a muscle stimulus and
The muscle stimulus causes the next overt response and so on.
The value of the concept of rG-SG can be seen in the mental element of chaining. This concept, the way
opens for research in the field of cognition.
Hall said about this in 1952: Further study of this automatic device, to understand
Complete thinking and reasoning, which are the most important organic success, will lead to this mechanism
A completely logical form will lead to what is officially considered the "main core of the psyche".
It means: interest, prediction, previous knowledge, expectation, goal and such inclination.
Hall concluded that thinking is the moment-by-moment internal reflection of things that are clearly to
occurs is formed
Hierarchy of family habits
Since there are many possible obvious responses for each muscle stimulus,
As a result, there are many ways to reach a goal, but the way that the organism
The sooner it is strengthened, the more likely it is to be selected. This topic has been discussed in previous articles
Hall was called "target slope hypothesis" but later it was a sub-principle to express the principle
The subject changed.
In 1952, Hall expressed the hierarchy of family habits. The hierarchy of habits
Co-family refers to the fact thatMany possible answers in any learning situation
There is. The answer that has the highest probability is the answer that is reinforced faster
and it requires the least effort. If that way is closed, the organism moves to another shortest way
He goes, if that way is also closed, he goes to the third way and so on.
Summary of Hall's final system:
There are three types of variables in Hall's theory:
1. Independent variables: stimulating events that are systematically determined by the experimenter
are manipulated.
2.Interface variables: Processes that are thought to occur within the organism, but
They are not directly visible.
3. Dependent variables: are aspects of behavior that are measured by the experimenter
to find out whether the independent variables were effective or not.
Hall and education
•
Hall's theory: driver reduction
•
Janet Taylor Spence, one of Hall's followers, emphasizes anxiety as a driver of learning
Kurd: A certain amount of anxiety in learners is necessary to have the motivation to learn.
Hall's teachers teach subjects at intervals so as not to cause boredom
and cause interference in learning.
Summary of the application of Hall's theory by Miller and Dalred:
•
Driver: The learner must want something
•
Hint: The learner must pay attention to something
•
Answer: The learner must do something
•
Reinforcement: The learner's response should cause him to get what he wants.
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